Lessons from History of Radiation use and

Lessons from History of Radiation use and Nuclear Accidents particularly Fukushima

The importance of understanding radiation issues for immediate analysis and immediate action.

I will focus on the public health aspect of the Japanese, and indeed the world, reaction to the Fukushima crisis.

Firstly I will summarize those facts that Iconsider to be important and explain why I believe the reaction was incorrect.

Very soon after Roentgen’s discovery of X rays in 1895, physicians used them for diagnostic purposes. Although very early it was realized that they caused

skin and other lesions the fantastic ability to see within the body was so important that physicians correctly argue

d that the benefits of the X ray use overshadowed any harm. But this only addressed one part of the risk-benefit calculation.

Others, physicists in particular, pointed out that the same benefit could be achieved with far less harm by more careful use.

In the 1920s there was more interest in controlling the use. In 1927 the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) was formed.

In l961 for example I had an (unnecessary) chest X ray at Stanford University and measured my dose. About 1 Rem.

Starting in August 1945 physicists have been involved with extensive nuclear activities.

Although there is a common public misconception that 200,000 persons each died because of radiation exposure at Hiroshima and Nagasaki,

most of the deaths were due to blast and radiation accounted for only a few percent

The Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission (ABCC) (now the Radiation Effects Research Foundation - RERF)

The UN started the United Nations Subcommittee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR)

e US National Academy of Sciences has issued a useful set of reports Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation which are more readable.

The studies find a crucial distinction between the results of radiation exposure in a short period (integrated over a week or two)

and the acute effects that it causes, and radiation over a long period of a few years and the chronic effects that causes.

is generally accepted that this occurs at radiation levels above 100 Rems (1 Sv) with an LD50 (least dose at which 50% of people die)

if 400 Rems (4 Sv), (formerly believed to be 250 Rems) which can be extended to 500 Rems (5 Sv) by a blood transfusion.

The first major example of a death from Acute Radiation Sickness was Dr Harry Daghlian

w
ho was exposed on August 21, 1945 and died 25 days later as a result of a nuclear criticality accident.

It is not always realized but prompt evacuation is only needed to avoid Acute Radiation Sickness.

Hiroshima and Nagasaki provide the data from which effects of radiation are usually determined.

As occurs with all chronic effects, they are determined at a high radiation level and a model is used to describe what happens at the lower level.

This comes from the realization that if a medical outcome of a pollutant or action is indistinguishable from one that occurs naturally,

Crump KS, Hoel DG, Langley CH, Peto R. 1976. Fundamental carcinogenic processes and their implications for low dose risk assessment.

Uncertainty estimates for low-dose-rate extrapolation of animal carcinogenicity data. Cancer Res. 37:3475-3483.

But there are assumptions and approximations. In the above sentence I used the word “indistinguishable”.

They must be biologically indistinguishable and not merely that a pathologist cannot distinguish.

There is only one paper to my knowledge on this fundamental point. Cancers that occur after radiation therapy have a different DNA structure.

These seems to be no interest in exploring this further either for radiation cancers or chemically produced cancers.

Also the dose in Hiroshima and Nagasaki was over a short period and it is probable that doses over a long period produce smaller effects.

The occupational doses at Ozerk in 1948 as the Russians were rushing to make a bomb before the wicked Americans killed them,

According to the above theoretical model, if someone gets a dose just below the LD50

At an integrated dose of 200 Rems there is a 10% to 20% increase in cancer probability.

It can therefore rise well above 200 Rems without causing Acute Radiation Sickness.

The natural incidence of fatal cancers is about 20% so no one who gets less than 100 Rems

will double his natural incidence and he cannot rightly claim that it is “more likely than not” that his cancer is due to radiation.

These numbers are deliberately a little higher than my best belief at the moment and do not account for a dose rate reduction

, but they are at the upper end (more pessimistic) of the fraction in the most recent US National Academy Report

At 100 millSievert, 0.1 Sv or 10 Rems the increase in fatal cancer probability is 4% or 20% of the natural fatal cancer rate.

The number of digits in the number of each entry is high but only the first has any significance. Alas there is no easily available table where age is broken out

The radionuclides that are produced by nuclear fission are well known, as are their melting points and boiling points.

A listing can be found, for example in Table B3 of the report of a study Severe Accidents at Nuclear Power Plants

at http://phys4.harvard.edu/~wilson/publications/pp341.pdf and Reviews of Modern Physics, 57, 3, pt. II, July 1985. This is reproduced here as Table 2.

The last (6^th ) column is for the dose integrated for the first 7 days after the accident.

I call attention to the isotopes of iodine and of cesium the former is normally gaseous and is easily released and the later,

Only in the high temperature of a nuclear explosion would it be likely to emit large quantities of strontium, uranium or plutonium.

Indeed it is often stated (correctly) that a coal fired power station in its particulate emissions emits more.

Also the exposure to the plant workers can be kept low without sacrificing performance.

They (as health physicists) have set standards which are low and can be met with little cost.

The benefit of a low radiation exposure is not limited by a high cost to the consumer of electricity

The habits, rules, customs about radiation exposure should change accordingly and the change should be automatic

and instantaneous and therefore prepared in advance. This did not happen at Fukushima.

The need to balance risks is similar to the physicians’ situation in 1900-1970.

At Windscale in 1957 a plutonium production reactor caught fire and iodine was released.

Short lived radioactive iodine (I 131 with 10 day half life) can make the major immediate hazard with a well known chain.

Iodine can fall to the ground and be eaten by cows where it concentrates in the milk and babies drink the milk and concentrate the iodine in the thyroid.

This has been realized for 60 years and at the Windscale accident in the UK in 1957 the government impounded and bought all milk for a couple of months.
(Cu
riously the cows produced twice as much as usual, although this increase is not usually attributed to radiation!)

No one knows exactly how much iodine was ingested at Chernobyl, but a lot. 2,000 children got thyroid cancer of which 20 have died.

There are anecdotes (which I believe) that a school teacher near Hohnichi (Belarus) and an Army general in eastern Ukraine

(the half life of the iodine is 10 days or so) and thereby causing a panic. This was, and is, far less likely to happen in an open society in Japan.

If ingested before radioactive iodine exposure it can reduce the ingestion of the radioactive substance.

But there are suggestions that if taken after exposure to radioactive iodine it can lock in the radioactive iodine already taken.

Moreover, there are other side effects particularly for pregnant women so it is wise not to take it unnecessarily.

I can find no report of what happened to the iodine, but believe that it combined with water to form HI

which was pumped out of the containment into the turbine building where it stayed quietly on the floor.

After Chernobyl in 1986 we confirmed that the important releases for the long term effects are Cesium 134

(2 year half life) and cesium 137 (30 year half life), and that the radiation from the ground deposition is the important

pathway with ingestion only about 25%. Evacuation from Pripyat was delayed 36 hours and Chistallogovka 3-4 days.

But prompter evacuation would not have changed the dose much. Only at Chernobyl did anyone in the plant get Acute Radiation Sickness.

In the preceding paragraphs I note that exposure to Cs 134 and Cs 137 is the dominant long term problems.

The measurements of radioactivity deposition confirms that deposition and therefore emission of strontium 90

and the transuranic elements was much less, even though the initial explosion dispersed them locally,

and the subsequent graphite fire must have reached thousands of degrees and almost all the cesium was evaporated.

That is an important observation because strontium and plutonium in particular are “bone seekers”

One important feature is that the effects on health of these low levels of radioactivity are calculated, and not measured.

Indeed the number might be zero if the radiation cancers are not identical with those occurring naturally or might

Those who wish to dramatize the effect tend to stress the total number of calculated fatal cancers.

Typical numbers discussed are 4,000 -8000 in the USSR countries (Ukraine, Belarus and European Russia) and 20,000 world wide.

The latter is to be compared with the billion or so naturally occurring cancers in the world in that time period.

But for discussions of how to manage an accident more direct information is appropriate.

Armed with this information I looked at the measurements from Fukushima-daiichi.

I looked at the data on the radiation spike measured at the gate of the Fukushima complex and integrated it. .

The spikes were probably doses from noble gases. The integrated dose was large, 0.02 Sv (or 2 Rems).

But this is less than 1 year of normal occupational dose and it should not have prevented a radiation worker from going to or being near the plant.

Indeed the report to IAEA states that the average for all power plant workers as of May 23rd was only 7.7 mSv or 770 mRems.

Starting on Thursday March 16th the reactors and the spent fuel pools were being cooled by sea water,

Taking the usual decay of Cs 134 and 137 into account one would expect an immediate drop,

and my estimate would be for about 0.06 Sv (6 Rems) at the main gate for the first year and falling more slowly thereafter.

It has been noted in the medical community for many years that there are stresses and problems associated with relocation

I note that in an accident situation this would only be a calculated increase but in that sense is directly comparable to any

increase in cancer rate due to radiation. It is hard to find good numbers and I merely refer to a recent review:

Health effects of relocation following disaster: a systematic review of the literature. By Uscher-Pines L. Disasters. 2009 Mar;33(1):1-22.

“Despite the frequency of post-disaster relocation and evidence of its effect on psychological morbidity,
there is a relative paucity of studies; the few examples in the literature reveal weak study designs, inconsistent results,

and inattention to physical health impacts and the challenges facing vulnerable populations. Further research guided by theory
is needed to inform emergency preparedness and recovery policy.”

.In the 1980s Dr Crouch and I looked at the unexposed “control” rats and mice from the US National Toxicology program. The rate of cancer varied many percent. For example we found that in some experiments the lights in the cages were on continuously and these were rodents with an elevated “control;” rate. In the large study of 30,000 mice at the National Center for Toxicological Research (NCTR), the ED01 or “megamouse” study there was a variation in response according to where the cages were. Those on the top shelf got tumors later than those on lower shelves. I presume that is because their stress was less. But what counts as stress for a mouse is unclear.

Similarly stress from divorce and separation, or even merely lack of a partner, has been blamed for a 15% increase in the probability of cancer fatalities.

Oystein Kravdal: The impact of marital Status on Cancer survival Social Science and medicine 32 (2001) 32:357-368 (2001 I take 5% increase in cancer probability from relocation as a reasonable “lower limit” to the increase of cancer with the stress of evacuation.

The "official" Kemeny report after the Three Mile Island accident stated (inter alia)

"We conclude that the most serious health effect of the accident (for any reason) was severe mental stress, which was short-lived.

The highest levels of distress were found among those living within 5 miles of TMI and in families with preschool children. "

Maybe the calorie intake is below starvation level and not all have three meals a day.

Lack of hot food, running water, crowding, poor toilet facilities and lack of water for cleaning people and locations,

lack of fuel and lack of hospitals to accept admissions, ambulances or medical services except what appear to be

Yet there is no indication that these were considered by those ordering an evacuation!

A simple calculation shows that this can far exceed any benefit evacuation may bring.

Doses after Fukushima

I first looked at doses in various locations listed by the Japanese Atomic Industrial Forum.

Indeed the newspapers emphasized the doses in the Ibaraki region, on the way to Tokyo. The abscissa is microSievert per hour.

But the dose seems much smaller when the doses in the Ibaraki prefecture are plotted with a different abscissa and ordinate. (figure 3)

One microSievert per hour, kept up for a year, would give 8760 microSievert, or 8.76 milliSv or 876 milliRems. What does this mean?

About the dose I got in 1991 from a day at Chernobyl mostly inside the sarcophagus

Any serious student should evaluate his own lifetime dose for comparison. I have been officially a “radiation worker” since 1946.

Yet my integrated dose is almost all due to medical X rays – and I have no record of these for the first 20 years.

The American Nuclear Society has a website which enables a good estimate to be made on line:

Ideally there would be such a program with the fatal cancer rates at different ages

In the last year I received 2.4 Rem (0.02 Sv). I believe it is absurd to evacuate to avoid this small a dose. Certainly evacuation should not be mandatory. Of course if we go further and consider age, evacuating an 85 year old for anything except Acute Radiation Sickness is really stupid. The graphs suggest that no one in the Tochiki or Ibaraki prefectures should be concerned but naturally they will be interested.

For the area NW of the plant, the best description of the doses comes from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science & Technology (MEXT) in Japan. (http://www.mext.go.jp/english/ )

Their map (Figure 4) shows that the major deposition was to the NW of the plant toward Fukushima itself. MEXT integrated the doses using the usual model, shown on Figure 4, and it seems that the highest dose was 0.15 Sv (15 Rems) integrated to March 2012. This is for continued occupancy in the open. It can clearly be reduced by being indoors and avoiding high dose hot spots.

For comparison this was the official dose allowed for the “liquidators” (clean up workers) after Chernobyl. According to the studies of effects of radiation this can add 1% or so to cancer probability. This is well below the variation in natural cancer incidence (up to 30%) from unknown causes.

There is no indication of any large deposition of either strontium or transuranic elements, suggesting that the internal deposition by these elements can be ignored.

From this MEXT use a theory to estimate the integrated dose to March 2011 shown in Table 2.

This table is a selection from the MEXT data showing the highest figure in all their measurements and a few low ones..

Table 3. Estimated Dose Integrated to March 2012 at Each Monitoring Location based on Measured Values (MEXT 2011).

The evacuation decision

The question the Japanese faced was how much to evacuate. I believe they flubbed. They had not thought in advance.

Then they panicked. It is unclear whether the evacuation was ordered by the government or merely suggested

But it was without analysis. But this is clearly forgivable given the history of radiation effects in Japan

and the failure of the world community to provide guidance. Indeed for 30 years the world community has set guidelines which, I argue, are stupid.

They should have asked the questions:

Is there an immediate reason to evacuate to avoid Acute Radiation Sickness? The measured doses give the answer NO.

Would there be an appreciable increase in long term radiation dose by waiting a few days to analyze?

Again the realization that Cesium was the problem would demand the answer NO.

In retrospect was it sensible to evacuate people beyond 3 miles from the reactor, bearing in mind the competitive risks?

I submit that here again the answer is NO.

Would it have been wise to inform everyone and prepare for a VOLUNTARY evacuation for those who wished it,

which preparation could avoid the chaos that occurred in New Orleans after Katrina? Here the answer is definitely YES.

Is there an adverse effect on health in evacuation? Here the answer is definitely YES although often ignored.

I submit that the whole world nuclear power and safety community, including semi-political agencies like IAEA and

politicians themselves should ponder the above.

American friends of the Japanese people should ask themselves the following questions:

What is the role of friends who believe they are experts?

Careful analysis along the lines of the early part of this report?

Off the cuff remarks at a Senate budget hearing?

Dr Gregory Jaczko, Chairman of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission gave the following testimony Jaczko to the US Congress on March 17^th 2011:

“Recently, the NRC made a recommendation that based upon the available information that we have ,

that for a comparable situation in the United States, we would recommend an evacuation to a

much larger radius than has been currently been provided in Japan. As a result of this recommendation,

the ambassador in Japan has issued a statement to American citizens that we believe it is appropriate to evacuate

to a larger distance up to approximately 50 miles.”

This was repeated by President Obama, on Thursday, March 17, 2011

President Obama made remarks from the White House Rose Garden on the nuclear crisis in Japan shortly

after paying an unannounced visit to the Japanese Embassy. After expressing condolences to the Japanese people,

the president confirmed calling for an evacuation of U.S. citizens within a 50 mile radius of the reactors in northeastern Japan.

These were outlandish and not the remarks of a true friend. I so stated in a formal FAX to Dr Jaczko as soon as I saw the transcript.

In my carefully considered view, Dr Jaczko and president Obama should visit Japan and apologize to the Japanese people.

Perhaps by bowing deeply to the Japanese legislature.

This would be politically difficult for President Obama in his present travails but may be possible the day after the 2012 election

- whicer way the electoral decision goes.

I have been told that Jacsko was merely following an NRC rule: keep the dose less than 500 mRem in the immediate accident

and < 2 Rem over the first year.

I argue that the events at Fyukushima demonstrate clearly how stupid, and counterproductive to public health, that rule is,

and it becomes a matter of urgency to modify it.

I note that in an emergency someone in NRC has to be empowered to act without waiting for a Commission, or committee meeting.

Chairman Jacsko claimed, and still claims, that power.

But it was never an emergency in the USA, and it is certainly now over.

His outlandish recommendation on Thursday March 17^th suggests that he is not capable of exercising that power wisely.

Radiation Accident Management

At Fukushima there was no proper management of radiation doses immediately the reactor situation was out of control

(immediately after the tsunami). There seems to have been no realization in Japan, and probably no realization anywhere else,

of the fact that radiation managem

ent after an accident should, even must, must differ from radiation management immediately before the accident.

Before TMI (before 1980) it was generally accepted that there were certain radiation levels that should not be exceeded.

After TMI, and even more after Chernobyl these were reduced. While it makes some sense to keep, for example, to 5 Rems/yr (0.05 Sv/yr) for a nuclear power

worker in ordinary operation it is, I believe desirable to return to

he higher figures as soon as an accident goes beyond normal

Thus it should be allowed for a worker to plan for 20 Rems (0.2 Sv) for the whole accident, and indeed at Chernobyl 100,000 or more workers got this dose of 20

Rems as "liquidators" (clean up workers).

A one time dose of 80 Rems (0.8 Sv) was allowed for an astronaut and for a rare individual "to save lives" 80 Rems was allowed

It is reported that at Fukushima workers were pulled off the job in Sunday and Monday in the Fukushima accident before the Japanese belatedly restored the

p
rre-1980 levels.

This probably delayed a proper technical response to the accident.

Although at all ages it is important to keep the radiation dose below that giving Acute Radiation Sickness, full use of older workers, particularly volunteers, should

be taken. A person over 70 years old with a high accumulated radiation dose will develop cancer only after 20 years and then it is the least of his worries.

It is unclear whether my recommendation of an immediate reversion to the pre-1980 radiation levels would have enabled

TEPCO to control the reactors any better. I think they would.

A lesser issue: responsibility of the media.

News media have been the principal method of communicating with the public, and even with experts.

At Three Mile Island, at Chernobyl and at the Tokai incident the US media failed miserably and forgot their duty.

Not one newspaper, nor Associate Press quoted the precise NRC press releases.

None of the major newspapers even got the units correct.

The internet has improved this. Experts can find information directly.

But there is still a responsibility to inform the public, and in particular to explain what the radiation dose levels mean,

in terms of public health and to discuss the harrowing decisions those on the spot must make.

THEY DID NOT

I next turn to accident prevention.

The aim is to prevent the undesirable fission products ever coming into contact with the public. There are several barrier:

(1) The fuel is in zirconium pellets with are in a zirconium tube. Although design criteria allowed 0.1% of these tubes to leak, probably none did.

(2) If the first barrier fails, there is a pressure vessel which should hold them.

(3) If the pressure vessel fails there is a containment vessel.

BUT

One must emphasize the importance of keeping barrier 1 intact if possible.

Of course it is always important to stop an untoward event as early in the chain as possible.

But it is especially important because failure here makes it harder to control.

In a BWR one can be close to the reactor in operation as I personally have been - one is shielded by the water in the pressure vessel.

Once barrier 1 fails, doses are higher outside the pressure vessel increasing radiation doses for a worker and making subsequent fixes harder.

Man Rems (Person-Sievert) or Rems/man (Sv/Person)?

In the preceding paragraphs I have emphasized the dose per person

(Rems/man or Sv per person)

because that matches the decisions that I was discussing.

But in radiation protection it is common to calculate the collective dose in Man-Rems or Person Sieverts)

because when using a linear dose response relationship and multiplying by the appropriate slope (coefficient) this gives the total societal impact.

I do this for the next section on comparing disasters and also take a more optimistic slope allowing for a dose rate reduction factor.

Comparison to other world disasters

The effects of evacuation or not evacuating should be compared to 15,000 dead, and 15,000 missing direct, measurable and

definite "dead bodies" from other earthquake and tsunami problems

Fatal cancers calculated from Natural Background (including medical) exposures

(world wide) about 10,000,000 per year

In an average ½ lifetime 300,000,000

Estimated Deaths from arsenic in Bangladesh assuming everyone has pure water henceforth

500,000

Earthquake in Haiti

200,000

Earthquake and Tsunami in Japan (prompt deaths)

30,000

Fatal cancers from Chernobyl in next 60 years (calculated excluding effects of stress)

7,500 in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine

20,000 –30,000 worldwide

Cancer fatalities from Three Mile Island

0.7 calculated for the Kemeny Commission

My rough guess is 500 calculated cancers from radiation from Fukushima (originally my incorrect prediction was close to zero.

But it could be zero or even slightly negative.

0-5,000 adverse health effects of evacuation.

I emphasize that the calculated cancers are within the fluctuations of the natural cancer numbers and cannot ever be directly measured.

My recommendations for study of radiation emergencies.

I have argued since 1980 that there should be detailed study of a number of fundamental issues. (These should be for other pollutant substances and actions also)

(1) Are cancers caused by radiation truly indistinguishable from naturally occurring cancers? Or is it just that a pathologist cannot distinguish? (use DNA analysis)

(2) What is the effect of dose rate? (look carefully at such data as the Techa River and the Mayak workers)

(3) what is the effect of disaster stress on cancer? In people? in animals?

Before 1980 the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission asked for an "Emergency Planning Zone" (not an evacuation zone) of 10 miles diameter.

After TMI this became an "evacuation zone" without the detailed discussion such a decision requires.

I, personally, was opposed to this implication for automatic evacuation, and testified to an Ontario Royal Commission and others that it was a mistake.

I strongly urge the International Community to reexamine this requirement.

My Recommendations for continued nuclear power

There have been already several discussions on what to do about existing nuclear power plants, and proposals for new ones throughout the world.

These include recent fine articles in the Bulletin of Atomic Scientists.

Many of these discussions echo previous views expressed by the authors asking that certain issues already decided be reconsidered.

I here make my comments on several of them: I do not give the detailed discussion that each topic deserves.

(1) We should obviously reexamine every existing nuclear power plant to see whether and how whether any specific problem raised by Fukushima can be easily

addressed. We must remember that when the first event tree analysis was done in 1976 it was found that the reactor (Surry) could be made 5 times safer

at small expense by modification of a control system.

I agree with the Japanese report to IAEA that even extreme events such as a combined earthquake, tsunami and bureaucratic muddle

should be analyzed by event tree analysis.

(2) Since it is claimed, and probably true, that newer designs of reactors would be safer and would have survived the terrible events of

earthquake and tsunami, should we not immediately retrofit all older reactors? And in particular all 23 older GE reactors in the USA?

This question has been repeatedly raised over the last 30 years. I believe the question is posed too narrowly.

It is too restricted to nuclear plants.

Should we not retrofit or get rid of all older energy plants?

The cost of retrofits can be high and in many cases would close the plants down.

Once the question is broadened we might decide to retrofit, and perhaps close, plants in order of the estimated risk to public health.

For example start by closing every coal fired power plant and only then consider the older nuclear ones.

(3) One of the largest risks we face in the world is the risk of starting a catastrophic all out nuclear war.

We must remember that bombs with 100 pounds of TNT killed many people in World War II.

Yet Sakharov's test explosion at Nuovo Zembla over 40 years ago was of a bomb. ONE BILLION times more powerful.

Should we not consider this carefully in all applications of nuclear energy or failures to use nuclear energy?

In particular should that not be a fundamental question asked by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission?

While it is evident to me that this issue MUST be in the front of all our minds from now to eternity,

it is far less clear that the Nuclear Regulatory Commission is the proper place.

Already, as noted above, they have internal conflicts between discussion of "ordinary " operation, and reaction to an accident mode which has

resulted in the silly statements mentioned earlier. It goes far beyond Fukushima or indeed beyond any other public safety

or public safety issue.

Where, when and how proliferation questions should be discussed is perhaps the most important long term issue.

Maybe I should invert the question. When are the few occasions when non-proliferation need NOT be discussed?

It has been urgent for at least the last 60 years.

Location	From Fukushima Dai-ichi NPP		Estimates of Integrated Dose	Latest Readings (Average)	Estimates of Integrated Dose as of March 11, 2012 (mSv)
Location	Direction	Distance	mSv	mSv/h	Estimates of Integrated Dose as of March 11, 2012 (mSv)
Akogi Kunugidaira, Namie Town, Futaba County	Northwest	24km	68.2	0.0374	224.9
Akogi, Ishigoya, Namie Town, Futaba County	Northwest	30km	37.1	0.0158	103.1
Akogi Teshichiro, Namie Town, Futaba County	Northwest	31km	32.9	0.0163	101.0
Onami Takinoiri, Fukushima City	Northwest	56km	3.8	0.0018	11.4
Aza Kitaaramaki, Hisanohama Town, Iwaki City	South	31km	1.0	0.0002	1.6
Takahagi, Ogawa Town, Iwaki City	South-southwest	36km	0.6	0.0002	1.4